


^ GUIDE 



Urinary Analysis, 



Use of Physicians and Students. 



HENRY G. PIFFARD, A.M., M.D.,. 

Physician to the Charity Hospital, to the New-YorTc Dispensary for Diseases of the. 

Skin, etc. etc. 






WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 27 GREAT JONES STREET. 
1873. 



t 



ti£ 



^\$** 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 

WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



S. W. Green, Printer, 
16 and 18 Jacob Street, New- York. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 
Introduction — Collection and Measurement op Urine 7 

CHAPTER II. 
Apparatus ..:....-. 11 

CHAPTER III. 
Reagents and Standard Solutions 17 



CHAPTER IV. 

Color, Reaction, and Specific Gravity — Estimation of 

Solids 24 

CHAPTER V. 
Estimation of Normal Constituents of Urine 32 



CHAPTER VI. 
Detection and Estimation of Abnormal Constituents 59 

CHAPTER VII. 
Detection of Medicinal and other Substances 77 

APPENDIX. 
Various Tables 85 



PEEFAOE 



The writer ventures to offer the following pages to physi- 
cians and students, in the hope that the simple and easy mani- 
pulations described may encourage the more frequent and 
more thorough investigation of the urinary secretion. Avail- 
ing himself largely of the materials scattered through dif- 
ferent treatises upon the subject, his aim has been to reduce 
them, as far as practicable, to a uniform system of manipula- 
tion, to simplify the calculation of results, and to arrange 
and modify the necessary apparatus, so that the various 
operations may be conducted speedily, accurately, and at 
slight expense. The Approximative method, or the quanti- 
tative estimation of various substances by the bulk of their 
precipitates, is simply what its name implies, and it would 
not be admitted into a laboratory devoted to exact chemi- 
cal researches ; but, for ordinary clinical purposes, the range 
of error is not sufficient to seriously modify the desired 
results. | 

In order to render this manual as compact and brief as 
possible, unnecessary verbiage and needless repetitions have 



VI PEEFACE. 

been avoided, and some few facts in connection with the sub- 
ject, with which the physician is necessarily acquainted, and 
which the student is sure to learn from other sources, have 
been purposely omitted. H. G. P. 

123 East 35th Street. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTEODUCTION. 

A thoeough and ultimate analysis of urine be- 
longs to the province of the professional chemist, 
but a very useful degree of information concerning 
the character of this fluid may be obtained by the 
physician, with the aid of a little apparatus, and the 
employment of a few simple and easily learned mani- 
pulations ; and the intention of the following pages 
is to indicate the processes necessary to enable the 
operator to obtain the desired information, with the 
least expenditure of time and trouble, due regard 
being had to the necessary element of accuracy. 

The principal sensible and physical qualities of 
urine being familiar to all, renders their discussion in 



b A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

this place unnecessary ; we shall therefore confine 
ourselves to the consideration of such facts only as 
require for their determination manipulative assis- 
tance. 

Urine, as it comes to us for examination, usually 
consists of two portions — first, a fluid, containing in 
solution a number of different salts, and also various 
organic substances resulting from the physiological 
or pathological processes constantly in operation; 
second, of a deposit, which may consist of a slight 
and barely distinguishable cloud of mucus, or, on 
the other hand, may occupy a very considerable por- 
tion of the vessel containing the specimen. The 
character of this deposit is usually and most readily 
learned with the aid of the microscope ; and to this 
instrument, in fact, we look for almost all of our in- 
formation concerning the insoluble substances en- 
countered, with the exception, perhaps, of availing 
ourselves of the well-known fact, that deposits of the 
urates may usually be carried into solution by the 
simple expedient of warming the urine, thus ena- 
bling us to determine in a moment whether or no the 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 9 

main bulk of the deposit consists of these salts. 
Leaving, therefore, to the microscope its usual duties 
in this connection, we will simply consider the chem- 
istry of such soluble constituents of urine as chiefly 
concern us from a clinical stand-point. 

If the whole quantity of urine passed in twenty- 
four hours can be obtained, its measurement will 
give us its amount, and the mixture will afford us an 
average sample for further investigation. This, how- 
ever, except in hospitals and in the case of patients 
confined to bed, is rarely practicable, and hence we are 
usually obliged to content ourselves with specimens 
passed upon retiring and upon rising. These should 
be brought in different bottles, in order that sepa- 
rate preliminary examinations may be made, and 
the results compared with an examination of the 
mixture, as the most striking differences will some- 
times be encountered.* 



* A patient recently sent us a number of specimens of urine passed on 
going to bed, which all contained sugar, while the urine passed the fol- 
lowing mornings contained none. This naturally led to a more favor- 
able prognosis (justified by the result) than if we had been obliged to 
form an opinion from an examination of specimens of the mixed urine, 
which would have constantly responded to the test for sugar. 



10 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

The quantity of urine passed is usually expressed* 
in this country and in England, in fluid ounces or 
pints; the fluid ounce (U. S. standard) being equal 
to a volume of distilled water weighing 455.69 
grains Troy, and constituting one sixteenth of a pint.* 
This measure will be meant when speaking of fluid 
ounces, drachms, etc. 

The employment of the grain system of weights 
has been deemed advisable, because it is the one in 
use in our pharmacy, and the one most familiar to 
those for whom these pages are written. The for- 
mulae of the standard solutions, however, are so con- 
structed that the solutions may be used by either 
the grain or gramme standard. 



* The fluid ounce in use in England (Imp. measure) weighs 437.5 grs. 
(=1 oz. av.,) and the Imp. pint contains 20 fluid ounces. 



CHAPTER II. 



APPAEATUS. 



The apparatus required for urinary analysis will 
depend, of course, upon the extent and thoroughness 
with which one de- 
sires to investigate 
the subject. For or- 
dinary clinical pur- 
poses, it need not be 
extensive or costly. 
A few words will be 
said concerning some 
of the apparatus men- 
tioned hereafter. 

Test-tubes and 
Stand. — Tubes about live inches in length will be 
found the most convenient for ordinary use.. . The 




Fig. 1. 



4 



12 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



stand should be provided with pins npon which 
the tubes can he inverted for drainage, and to keep 
them free from dust. 

Beakers of two-ounce capacity (Fig. 1, c) will he 
found most convenient 'for purposes of titration. 
Larger ones may he kept for other uses. 

Graduates of the usual conical form may he used 
for measuring large quantities of urine where strict 
accuracy is not required ; hut, for measuring smaller 
portions, either a burette or measuring pipette must 

be employed. 

Burette. — The most con- 
venient form of this in- 
strument is the one de- 
vised by Mohr. It consists 
of a graduated glass tube, 
to the lower end of which 
a small delivery tube is 
connected by means of a 
short piece of rubber tub- 
ing, the calibre of which can be obliterated by the 
aid of a spring-clip, (Fig. 1, a.) The burette is sup- 




A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 



13 



ported upon a convenient stand, (Fig. 1, b.) This 
form of burette will answer for every analysis men- 
tioned hereafter, except the one known as the " cha- 
meleon process," in which a solution of permanganate 
of potash is employed. Rubber acts prejudicially 
upon this solution, and hence the burette in which 
it is employed must be wholly of glass. This may 
be obtained in a Mohr's burette made with a glass 
stop-cock ; or the cheaper instruments of Gay Lussac, 
(Fig.2,)orofBink, 
(Fig. 3,) may be 
used. These latter, 
however, are not 
as convenient in 
use, nor as easily 
cleaned as Mohr's. 
He tort-stand , 
JBunsen burner, 
and Water-bath are 
shown in Fig 4. Pig 

To the water-bath may be fitted one of the author's 
water-ovens, (Fig. 4, c and d.) This little piece of 




14 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 




apparatus answers the purpose very well, and is much 
cheaper than ordinary independent water-ovens, 

(Fig. 5.) 

Bohemian flasks (Fig. 
6) of varying capacities, 
will be required, and also 
evaporating dishes and cap- 
sules of the best porcelain, from two to four inches 
in diameter, and as shallow as possible. 

A measuring pipette, for delivering small definite 
quantities of urine, etc., is an absolute necessity. 
We have found one of the form and with 
the graduations shown in Fig. 7 very useful. 
It is used in the following manner : Relax 
the spring and suck into the tube a suffi- 
cient quantity of urine ; release the spring, 
and the urine sucked up will, of course, remain. 
Then carefully relax the spring, and permit the urine 
to flow out of the tube until its upper level is oppo- 
site the proper mark. The point of the pipette is 
then brought into the beaker and its contents de- 
livered. In this way the proper amount of fluid can 




Fig. 6. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



15 




be delivered more rapidly and more accu- 
rately than if measured in an ordinary 
graduate. 

An apparatus for Rapid Filtration will 
facilitate the collection of precipitates. The 
one devised by the author (Fig. 8) is a 
modification of that of Bunsen.* It is used 

in the following 
manner : The 
platinum funnel 
point or conus and Fis - 7 - 
the filtering-paper are ar- 
ranged as directed by Bun- 
sen. The glass bottle, which 
may be a Thudichum's 
douche or other vessel of 
similar construction, is filled 
with water and the cork ad- 
Fig 8 justed. The fluid which it 

is desired to filter is poured into the funnel. If, 



^For a description of Bunsen's apparatus and method of using it, see 
Fresenius's " Quantitative Analysis," Am. ed. p. 66. 



16 



A GUIDE TO UKINAKY ANALYSIS. 



now, the stop-cock be opened and the water allow- 
ed to flow out of the bottle, the air within will be 
rarefied, inducing a more rapid flow of the con- 
tents of the funnel than would otherwise occur. 

The Balance and Weights should be delicate and 
accurate. Those furnished by Becker & Sons, 
of this city, are, we believe, the best for the 
price that can be obtained. Capped bottles for 
acids, (Fig. 9,) plainer bottles for other reagents, and 

six-ounce bottles 
for standard solu- 
tions, should be 
obtained. In addi- 
tion, watch-glass- 
es, filtering-paper, 
Mg. 9. Fig. io. funnels, brushes 

for cleaning test-tubes, wash-bottles, (Fig. 10,) etc., 
will be required. 

A few other pieces of apparatus for special pur- 
poses will be described hereafter. 








CHAPTER III. 

EEAGENTS AND STANDAED SOLUTIONS. 

The following reagents and solutions will be 
found necessary for the performance of the tests and 
analyses to be described. 

EEAGENTS. 

Distilled water. 
Absolute alcohol. 
Sol. nitrate of silver. 

" chloride of barium. 

" nitrate of uranium. 

" sulphate of copper. J 
Liq. ammonias. 
Nitric acid. 
Hydrochloric acid. 
Sulphuric acid. 
Acetic acid. 
Nitroso-nitric acid. 



1 to 10. 



18 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

STANDARD AND ACCESSORY SOLUTIONS. 

The standard or test solutions for the quantitative 
determination of the various urinary ingredients 
should be made with the utmost care and most 
scrupulous regard for accuracy ; for it must be borne 
in mind that in testing a small quantity of urine and 
calculating the result for a larger quantity, any 
slight error or inaccuracy will of necessity be in- 
creased in magnitude. 

Volumetric analysis, or the method by titration, 
depends upon the employment of certain solutions 
of known strength and chemical equivalence, by the 
aid of which the quantities of other substances ex- 
isting in solution may be accurately ascertained. 
The so-called " normal " solutions, much used by the 
French, are made by dissolving the atomic weight of 
the reagent, expressed in grammes, in one litre of 
distilled water. With these solutions, however, we 
have nothing to do, but employ instead what are 
termed standard solutions,* the formulae of which 
vary with the convenience of the operator. Those 

* Abbreviated hereafter into S. S. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 19 

which we employ, with the exception of the one used 
for the analysis of albumen, are all of such strength 
that 200 fluid grains of the particular solution cor. 
respond to 1 grain of the substance whose quantity 
we wish to determine. In some analyses, certain 
accessory solutions enable us to determine the exact 
amount of standard solution required for the pro- 
per performance of the operation. 

UREA. 

Sol. Nitrate of Mercury. — Dissolve 38.6 grains 
(or grammes) of pure red oxide of mercury in the 
least possible quantity of nitric acid, with the aid of 
a little heat ; transfer the whole of this to the mixing- 
flask, and dilute with distilled water to 1000 grains, 
(or c. c.) 200 grains of this S.S. are equivalent to 1 
grain of urea, or 20 c.c. of S.S. =o= 1 decigramme. 

Baryta Solution. — Mix one volume of a cold sa- 
turated solution of nitrate of baryta with two 
volumes of a similar solution of caustic baryta. 

Sol. Garb, of Soda — about 1 to 10. 



20 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

UKIC ACID. 

Sol. Permanganate of Potash. — Dissolve 2.1 
grains (or grammes) of permang. potass, in 1000 
grains (or c.c.) of distilled water. 200 grains of S.S. 
=o= 1 grain of uric acid, or 20 c.c. o 1 decigramme. 

PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

Sol. Chloride of Iron. — Dissolve 3.88 grains (or 
grammes) of pure iron in a sufficiency of hydro- 
chloric acid, with the addition of a little nitric, and 
evaporate to dryness ; dissolve the residue in a little 
water, and dilute to 1000 grains, (or c.c.) 200 grains 
of S.S. =o 1 grain of phosphoric acid, or 20 c.c. o 
1 decigramme. 

Sol. Nitrate of Uranium. — Dissolve 35.5 grains 
(or grammes) of pure nit. of uran., free from mois- 
ture, in 1000 grains (or c.c.) of water. 200 grains 
of SS. o 1 grain of phosphoric acid, or 20 c.c. o 
1 decigramme. 

Sol. Acetate of Soda. — Dissolve 400 grains of 
acetate of soda in six ounces of water, and add 800 
grains of acetic acid. 

Sol. Ferrooyanide of Potassium — 1 to 10. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 21 

SULPHURIC ACID. 

Sol. Chloride of Barium. — Dissolve 15.25 grains 
(or grammes) of chl. barium in 1000 grains (or c.c.) 
of water. 200 grains of S.S. =o 1 grain of sulphuric 
acid, or 20 c.c. 1 decigramme. 

Sol. of Sulphate of Soda — 1 to 10. 

CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 

Sol. of Nitrate of Silver. — Dissolve 14.53 grains 
(or grammes) of nit. of silver in 1000 grains (or c.c.) 
of distilled water. 200 grains S.S. =o= 1 gr. chlor. 
sodium, or 20 c.c. o 1 decigramme. 

Sol. Chr ornate of Potash. — Saturated. 

ALBUMEN. 

Sol. Ferrocyanide of Potassium. — Dissolve 1.3 
grains (or grammes) of ferrocyanide of potass, in 
1000 grains (or c.c.) of distilled water. 100 grs. S.S. 
o 1 gr. albumen, or 10 c.c. o 1 decigramme. 

SUGAR. 

Fehlinfs Solution. — A number of different formu- 
lae pass under this name. The one we are in the 



22 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

habit of using is made by dissolving, first, 51.98 grs. 
(or grammes) of pure sulphate of copper in 500 grs, 
(ore. c.) of distilled water; second, dissolve 259.90 
grs. (or grammes) of pure crystallized Eochelle salts in 
a solution of caustic soda, (sp. gr. 1.12,) whose volume 
is equal to that of 1000 grs. (or c.c.) of distilled water. 
One volume of the first solution, mixed with two 
volumes of the second, constitutes Fehling's Sol., 200 
grs. of which o 1 gr. of sugar, or 20 c.c. =o 1 deci- 
gramme. 

These solutions should be kept separate until re- 
quired for use, as the quality of the mixtwre rapidly 
deteriorates. 

In the preparation of the foregoing test-solutions, 
it is important that the chemicals employed be of 
the purest character, and before weighing should be 
free from adhering moisture. To secure the greatest 
accuracy, the solutions should be titrated as soon 
as made. If, for instance, it is desired to deter- 
mine the exact chemical strength of the mercurial 
solution, we carefully weigh half a grain of pure 
urea and dissolve it in a little water. The burette 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 23 

is now filled to the mark with the mercurial solu- 
tion and the titration is performed as directed in the 
analysis for urea, (p. 38,) omitting, however, the ba- 
ryta solution. If, upon the termination of the ana- 
lysis, it is found that 100 grains of solution have 
been employed to effect the desired reaction, the so- 
lution possesses, of course, the required strength. If 
less than 100 grains of solution effected the final 
result, the solution is too strong and must be diluted ; 
if more than 100 grains were required, it is too weak, 
and more nitrate of mercury must be added. 

The exact amount of water or of the salt required 
to standardize the solution may be ascertained by 
the rule of three. The other solutions may, in like 
manner, be titrated with definite quantities of their 
appropriate reagents. 

The solutions of chloride of iron and nitrate of 
uranium should be titrated with phosphate of soda. 
The solutions of chloride of barium and ferrocyanide 
of potassium can not be conveniently titrated. 



CHAPTER IV. 

COLOE, EEACTION, SPECIFIC GEAVITY, AND ESTIMATION 
OF SOLIDS. 

Color. — The color of the urine, as is well known, 
varies from a pale yellow or straw color to a dark 
brown or even blackish tint. The depth of color, ex- 
cept when produced by blood or some accidental pig- 
ment, depends upon the presence in greater or less 
quantity of certain coloring matters, concerning the 
nature of which there has been much dispute. Har- 
ley,* who has given a great deal of attention to this 
subject, and who has promulgated the most plausible 
view concerning the nature of the urine pigment, be- 
lieves that it is a direct derivative of the coloring 
matter of the blood, and has named it Urohaematin.f 



* Harley. The Urine and its Derangements. London, 1872. 
f As these pages are passing through, the press, we have met with 
spectroscopic evidence corroborating the view that the urine pigment is 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 25 

Urohsematin is probably present in every speci- 
men of urine, but does not exist entirely in a free 
state, being combined to a greater or less extent with 
certain bases, from which it may be freed by the ad- 
dition of nitric or hydrochloric acids. In estimating 
the quantity of urohsematin contained in a specimen 
of urine, it is important [Harley] to add a small 
quantity of one of the acids mentioned, as the ap- 
pearance of the urine before the use of the reagent 
is no guide to the amount of pigment contained — a 
pale urine often yielding a higher tint, upon the addi- 
tion of the acid, than another specimen which was 
originally darker. 

When it is desired to record the tint of a speci- 
men of urine, before or after the addition of acid. 



a derivative of the coloring matter of the blood, by the discovery, in a 
solution of decomposing haemoglobin, of a broad but distinct band of 
absorption between the Fraunhofer lines b and F. This line appears to 
be identical in position and character with the band discovered by Jaffe 
( Virchow's ArcMv, B. 47) in Urine and in solutions of Urobilin. In the 
solution of haemoglobin referred to, the new band was accompanied by 
the two oxygen blood bands, (between D and E,) and also by the methse- 
mogiobin band, (between C and D.) This association gave a four-banded 
blood spectrum, differing from any that we can find on record, and the 
composite nature of which was evident. 



26 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

the Color-table of Vogel * will afford a useful and 
now almost universal standard of comparison. 

Reaction. — The reaction of normal urine is usu- 
ally acid, though sometimes neutral or even faintly 
alkaline. It is to be ascertained by the use of Lit- 
mus paper. If the urine be acid, the blue paper is 
reddened ; but, if alkaline, the blue color is restored 
to previously reddened paper. If neutral, neither 
the blue nor the red papers change their colors. The 
degree of acidity or alkalinity may be ascertained 
in the following manner: 

Prepare a solution containing 10 gr. of pure 
hydrate of soda to 1000 grains of water. Each 
grain of this solution will consequently contain .01 
gr. of soda. Fill the burette to the mark with the 
solution of soda, and bring under it a measured 
quantity of acid urine in a small beaker. The soda 
solution is now added to the urine in small quantities 
at a time, and thoroughly mingled with it, and a 
piece of blue litmus paper is dipped into the mixture 
after each addition. As long as the paper is red- 

* Vogel. Farbentabelle fur den Urin. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 27 

dened, it is necessary to continue the addition of the 
alkaline fluid; but as soon as the mixture fails to 
affect the paper, the operation is concluded and an 
examination of the burette will indicate the number 
of grains of solution employed to neutralize the 
urine under examination. If 25 grains of solution 
have been used, it will indicate that .25 gr. of soda 
have been required to effect the neutralization 
of the quantity of urine employed. If the same 
volume of urine, say one ounce, be used on every 
occasion, the number on the burette may be simply 
recorded as the index of acidity. Before the result, 
however, is recorded, the mixture should be tested 
with reddened paper. If the paper be unchanged, 
the analysis is terminated ; but if, on the other hand, 
the mixture be decidedly alkaline in reaction, the ex- 
periment must be repeated with greater care toward 
the end of the process. 

If the urine be alkaline, and we desire to ascertain 
the degree of its alkalinity, we prepare a solution con- 
taining 15.75 grs. of pure oxalic acid to 1000 
grains of water. This solution is exactly neutralized 



28 



A GUIDE TO UKINAKY ANALYSIS. 



by an equal volume of the soda solution given 
above. 

Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity of a speci- 
men of urine may be ascertained by either of the 
following methods : 

I. By means of the Urinometer. — To use this in- 
strument, pour a sufficient quantity of 
urine into the jar, and introduce the 
urinometer. The figures upon the stem 
which are opposite the level of the fluid 
indicate the specific gravity. 

The standard temperature at which 
the specific gravity of a fluid is to be 
scertained is 60 deg. F. ; but, as it is 
not always convenient to bring the 
urine to the required temperature, the following 
table of corrections * for the s;lass urinometer will 
be found of service. 

Example. — If the temperature of the urine at the 
time of observation is 75 deg. F., and the urinometer 




Bird. Urinary Deposits, etc., Am. Ed. p. 70. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



29 



indicates a sp. gr. of 1018, the corrected or true sp. 
gr. of the specimen will be 1018 + 1.4=1019.4. 





No. to be ad- : 




No. to be ad- 




No. to be ad- 


T. 


ded to the in- 


T. 


ded to the in- 


T. 


ded to the in- 




dication. 




dication. 




dication. 


60 


.00 


69 


.80 


78 


1.70 


61 


.08 


70 


.90 


79 


1.80 


62 


.16 


71 


1.00 


80 


1.90 


63 


.24 


72 


1.10 


81 


2.00 


64 


.32 


73 


1.20 


82 


2.10 


65 


.40 


74 


1.30 


83 


2.20 


66 


.50 


75 


1.40 


84 


2.30 


67 


.60 


76 


1.50 


85 


2.40 


68 


.70 


77 


1.60 


86 


2.50 



II. By means of the Bottle and Balance. — The sp. 
gr. of a specimen of urine may be ascertained with the 
greatest accuracy by means of a bottle and a good 
balance. A bottle made for the purpose, Fig. 12, 
and capable of holding exactly 
1000 grains of distilled water, is 
counterpoised upon a balance, and 
afterward filled with urine. The 
bottle is now returned to the 
balance and the weight of its con- 
tents ascertained. This weight expressed in grains 
will be the index of its specific gravity ; if, instead of 




Fig. 12. 



30 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

a 1000-grain bottle, one holding 500 grains be used, 
the sp. gr. will be obtained by multiplying the 
weight of its contents by 2. 

Example. — Suppose the 500-grain bottle weighs 
x grains. Filled with distilled water, it weighs 
x 500 grains. Filled with urine, it may weigh x + 
513 grains, which, multiplied by 2, gives 1026 as 
the sp. gr. 

It will save time to have always at hand an 
exact metallic counterpoise of the empty bottle. 

ESTIMATION OF SOLIDS. 

The respective proportions of water and solids 
in any specimen of urine may be ascertained in the 
following manner : 

Take a small platinum or good porcelain capsule, 
the weight of which is known, and introduce into it 
a weighed amount of urine. Place the capsule and 
contents upon the water-bath and evaporate to dry- 
ness. When dry, it is again weighed. The loss in 
weight gives the amount of water, and the dif- 
ference between the weight and that of the 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 31 

empty capsule gives the weight of the solids. If 
the capsule containing the dry residue be now ex- 
posed to the naked flame of an alcohol lamp or Bun- 
sen burner, the* organic portions will be destroyed — 
known by the contents of the capsule first blacken- 
ing, and then becoming of a whitish color. The 
weight of this incinerated residue enables us to de- 
termine the respective weights of the organic and in- 
organic ingredients of the urine. 

Example. — Two fluid drachms of urine, 

whose sp. gr. was 1025.5, weighed. . 116.82 gr. 
After evaporation to dryness, the residue 

weighed 6.42 gr. 

After incineration the ash weighed 2.14 gr. 

RESULT. 

Water in two fluid drachms 110.40 gr. 

Organic substances 4.28 gr. 

Fixed salts 2.14 or. 

Multiplying these figures by 4, will give the pro- 
portions of water, organic and inorganic constituents 
per fluid ounce. 



CHAPTER V. 

ESTIMATION OF NOKMAL CONSTITUENTS. 
UKEA. 

The presence of Urea in a given specimen of urine 
being assumed, (its entire absence rarely if ever oc- 
curring,) the sole object of the analysis will be to 
ascertain the proportion in which it exists. Several 
methods have been devised for this purpose, but 
those of Davey and of Liebig are the most convenient 
and generally applicable, although not as absolutely 
correct as some others. 

Davey 1 s Method. — This method is founded upon 
the fact that Urea is very readily decomposed by the 
hypochlorites of soda, potash, or lime, and its consti- 
tuent nitrogen is evolved in a gaseous state. From 
the volume of gas evolved, the amount of urea is 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



33 



calculated. The process is described by Thudichuni* 
substantially as follows : 

Obtain a strong glass tube twelve or fourteen inch- 
es long, closed at one end and with its open extremi- 
ty ground smooth, and having a bore not larger than 
can be conveniently covered with the finger. The 
tube should hold from two to three cubic inches, 
each divided into tenths and hundredths by gradua- 
tions on the glass. When used, 
the tube is filled about a third full 
of mercury, after which add half ^^ 
a fluid drachm of the urine to be 
examined ; then holding the tube 
in one hand near its open extre- 
mity, with the thumb in readiness 
to cover the aperture, fill it com- 
pletely with a solution of the 
hypochlorite of soda, taking care 
not to overflow it; cover instantly and tightly 
with the thumb and invert once or twice to 
thoroughly mix the urine with the soda solution. 

* Thudichuni, Pathology of the Urine. London, 1858. 
3 




34 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

The tube is then to be opened beneath the surface 
of a suitable vessel containing a saturated solution 
of common salt. The tube is now to be supported 
in a vertical position. As soon as the tube is placed 
in position, the mercury flows out and the salt solu- 
tion takes its place ; the hypochlorite, however, being 
lighter than the solution of salt, will remain in the 
upper part of the tube. The moment the hypochlo- 
rite comes in contact with urine, a rapid disengage- 
ment of nitrogen gas takes place, which collects at the 
upper part of the tube. In from six to twelve hours, 
the decomposition of the urea will be complete, and 
the volume of nitrogen obtained is to be observed. 
Each cubic inch of gas obtained in this way cor- 
responds to .645 of a grain of urea. 

If the analysis be performed in the manner above 
described, the following table, constructed by Prof. 
Flint,* will materially assist the calculation of the 
amount of urea per fluid ounce of urine. 

* Flint, Chemical Examination of Urine. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



35 



Table showing the Quantity of Urea in Grains, per Fluid Ounce of Urine, 
corresponding to the Divisions of the Urea Tube, when half a Fluid 
Drachm of Urine has been used for Analysis. 



Divisions 


Grains of 


Divisions 


Grains of 


Divisions 


Grains of 


of a 


Urea per 


of a 


Urea per 


of a 


Urea per 


Cubic Inch. 


Fluid Ounce. 


Cubic Inch. 


Fluid Ounce. 


Cubic Inch. 


Fluid Ounce. 


o-io 


1-032 


0-74 


7-637 


1-38 


14-241 


0-12 


1-238 


0-76 


7-843 


1-40 


14-448 


0-14 


1-444 


. 0-78 


8-049 


1-42 


14-654 


0-16 


1-651 


0-80 


8-256 


1-44 


14-860 


0-18 


1-857 


0-82 


8-462 


1-46 


15-067 


0-20 


2-064 


0-94 


8-669 


1-48 


15-273 


0-22 


2-270 


0-86 


8-875 


1:50 


15-480 


0-24 


2-476 


0-88 


9-081 


1-52 


15-686 


0-26 


2-683 


0-90 


9.288 


1-54 


15-893 


0-28 


2.889 


0-92 


9-494 


1-56 


16.099 


0-30 


3.096 


0-94 


9-701 


1-58 


16-305 


0-32 


3-302 


0-96 


9-907 


1-60 


16-512 


0-34 


3-508 


0-98 


10-113 


1-62 


16-718 


0-3G 


3-715 


1-00 


10-320 


1-64 


16-925 


0-38 


3-921 


1-02 


10-526 


1-66 


17131 


0-40 


4-128 


1-04 


10-733 


1-68 


17-337 


0-42 


4-334 


1-06 


10-939 


1-70 


17-544 


0-44 


4-540 


1-08 


11-145 


1-72 


17-750 


0-46 


4-747 


1-10 


11-352 


1-74 


17-957 


0-48 


4-953 


1-12 


11.558 


1-76 


18-163 


0-50 


5-160 


1-14 


11-764 


1-78 


18-369 


0-52 


5-336 


1-16 


11-971 


1-80 


18-576 


0-54 


5-573 


1-18 


12-177 


1-82 


18-782 


0-56 


5-779 


1-20 


12-384 


1-84 


18-989 


0-58 


5-985 


1-22 


12-590 


1-86 


19-195 


0-60 


6-192 


1-24 


12-796 


1-88 


19-401 


0-62 


6-398 


1-26 


13-003 


1-90 


19-608 


0-64 


6-605 


1-28 


13-209 


1-92 


19-814 


0-66 


6-811 


1-30 


13-416 


1-94 


20-021 


0-68 


7-017 


1-32 


13-622 


1-96 


20-227 


0-70 


7-224 


1-34 


13-828 


1-98 


20-433 


0-72 


7-430 


1.36 


14-035 


2 -00 


20-640 



For clinical purposes, the above method is in gene- 
ral sufficiently accurate, but if greater exactness is 
desired, corrections for temperature and barometric 



36 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



pressure must be made. This may be readily effect- 
ed by the aid of the following formula : 



V: 



V{E-f) 



■(1+0.00367 t) 760' 

in which V represents the corrected volume. 

FJ the volume of gas observed. 

H, the height of the barometer in millimetres. 

f\ the tension of the vapor of the water at 

t, the temperature by the Centigrade scale at which 
the gas is measured. 

The following table by Eegnault gives the value 
of/, and also of the denominator (1 + 0.00367 t) 760, 
for all temperatures between 0° and 30° C. 



c.° 


1 Value of 

'(1 + 0.00367 
x760. 


Value of 


c.° 


Value of 

(1 + 0.00367 
x 760. 


Value of 


1 


762-8 


4-9 


16 


804-6 


13-5 


2 


765-6 


53 


17 


807-4 


14-4 


3 


768-4 


5-7 


18 


810-2 


153 


4 


771-2 


6-1 


19 


813-0 


16-3 


5 


773-9 


6-5 


20 


815-8 


17-4 


6 


776-7 


7-0 


21 


818-6 


18-5 


7 


.779-5 


7-5 


22 


821-4 


19-7 


8 


782-3 


8-0 


23 


824-1 


20-9 


9 


785-1 


8-6 


24 


826-9 


22-2 


10 


787-9 


9 2 


25. 


829-7 


23-6 


11 


790-7 


9.8 


26 


832-5 


25-0 


12 


793-5 


105 


27 


835-3 


26-5 


18 


796-3 


11-2 


28 


838-1 


28-1 


14 


799-1 


11-9 ■ 


29 


840-9 


29.8 


15 


801-8 


12-7 


30 


843.7 


31-5 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 37 

Example.— Let V— .42 cub. in. of nitrogen gas 
observed at 20° C, and H a barometric pressure of 
758 mm.* then, 

-fZ'— 42 (758-17.4) _ 

V 815.8 - - d8 ' 

From this it will be seen that the difference be- 
tween the observed and the corrected volume, at the 
temperature and pressure taken (about 68° F., and 
29.84 inches,) involves an error of over ten per 
cent. If the temperature be higher or the pressure 
less — not unusual conditions — the error will be still 
greater. 

A serious inconvenience connected with the per- 
formance of Davey's process arises from the varia- 
bility in the decomposing power of different prepa- 
rations of hypochlorite solution. The difficulty of 
obtaining solutions of requisite and uniform power 
led me for a time to abandon this method of analy- 
sis in favor of Liebig's. Dr. George B. Fowler,f how- 



* If the temperature and pressure be observed with a Fahrenheit 
thermometer and a barometer graduated in inches, the reductions can 
easily be effected by tables in the Appendix. 

f New -York Med. Jour., Aug. 1872. 



38 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

ever, lias ascertained . that the liq. sodce chlorinates 
of Squibb possesses the requisite qualifications, and 
my own more recent experience with it confirms his 
conclusions. 

IAebig's Method. — This method takes advantage of 
the fact that Urea will combine with the oxide of 
mercury, and hence all that is necessary is to obtain 
a standard solution of mercury, with which to titrate 
the solution of Urea, and also an indicator by means 
of which to detect the point when all the Urea has 
entered into combination with the mercury and the 
latter slightly predominates. This indicator is a 
sol. of carbonate of soda. Before, however, urine 
can be submitted to titration with a mercurial solu- 
tion, it is necessary to remove the phosphoric acid. 
This is effected by means of the " baryta solution," 
(p. 19.) 

The analytical process may be conducted as fol- 
lows : 

Mix a convenient quantity of urine with exactly half 
its volume of the baryta solution, and pour the mix- 
ture upon a dry filter. When a sufficient quantity 



A GUIDE TO. URINARY ANALYSIS. 39 

of clear fluid has passed through, transfer by means 
of a pipette one fluid drachm of it to a beaker, and 
add a little distilled water to increase the bulk of 
the fluid, and brins; it under a burette filled to the 
mark, with the standard solution of mercuric 
nitrate, (p. 19.) Deliver the test solution into the 
beaker as long as a precipitate is distinctly, seen to 
form. Have ready prepared a slip of black glass, 
upon which have been placed a few separate drops 
of a solution of carbonate of soda. A drop of the mix- 
ture in the beaker is to be brought from time to time 
in. contact with the soda solution upon the glass. If 
the color remain white, free urea is still present ; but 
when it becomes yellow, the addition of the mercuric 
solution is to be discontinued, and the number of 
grains of S.S. employed is to be ascertained by look- 
ing at the burette. This number, multiplied by 12 
and divided by 200, will give the number of grains 
of Urea per fluid ounce of urine. 

The above process is quite accurate, if allowance 
be made for chloride of sodium, which also decom- 
poses the mercuric solution, and does so in advance 



40 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

of the reaction which takes place between the Urea 
and the mercury. The mercurial compound, (chlo- 
ride of mercury,) however, is soluble, and does not 
give rise to any precipitate, the precipitate due to 
the union of the Urea and mercury not forming until 
all the chloride of sodium has been decomposed. This 
obliges us to watch for the first indication of a pre- 
cipitate, and to deduct from the final result the num- 
ber of grains of S.S. that have been used before the 
precipitate occurs.* 

This prior reaction between the mercury and the 
chloride enables us also to estimate the quantity of 
chloride of sodium ; for, if the number of grains of 
S.S. used, before the precipitation of the Urea, be 
divided by 4, the quotient will very nearly repre- 
sent the number of grains of chloride of sodium per 
fluid ounce of urine, f 

Neither sugar nor albumen interfere with the per- 
formance of Davey's process ; but in using Liebig's 

* It is extremely important that the mercuric solution should be free 
from excess of acid, or from metallic contamination, as bismuth, silver, 
or lead may give a cloudiness which will embarrass the observation. 

f The exact divisor is 4.15. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 41 

method, albumen, if present, should be separated be- 
fore titration. 

The two processes above given are simple and 
easily performed, and for most clinical purposes 
sufficiently accurate. For more exact determinations, 
the procedures of Millon, Grehant, or Boyniond,* 
are to be preferred ; but, as they are tedious and 
complicated, and require somewhat elaborate ap- 
paratus, their consideration is omitted. 

URIC ACID. 

This acid usually exists in the urine, in combina- 
tion with certain bases from which it may be sepa- 
rated by any of the strong acids. The one usually 
employed for this purpose is hydrochloric. If to a 
given quantity of urine about 5 per cent of its volume 
of hydrochloric acid be added, and the mixture be set 
aside in a cold place for twenty-four hours, the Uric 
acid will be deposited upon the bottom and sides of 
the vessel as reddish brown crystals. Pure Uric acid 
is white, but the color of the cry stals usually obtained 

* Boymond. L'Uree, etc. Paris, 1872. 



42 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

is due to the precipitation with them of a certain 
portion of the coloring matter of the urine, in a state 
of intimate adherence. 

If the crystals be now separated from the fluid by 
filtration or decantation, they may be recognized as 
Uric acid by their microscopical appearance, and by 
the following tests : The crystals of Uric acid disap- 
pear upon the addition of liq. potassce, and may be 
caused to reappear by the further addition of hy- 
drochloric acid in excess. If brought in contact with 
nitric acid, the crystals dissolve with slight effer- 
vescence ; and if the acid be driven off by the appli- 
cation of a gentle heat, and ammonia added, a bright 
purple color will appear. This is known as the 
Murexid test. 

The quantitative determination of Uric acid in- 
volves its separation by the means given. It must 
then be weighed, or else its amount ascertained by 
titration with a standard solution of permanganate 
of potash. The former of these methods is pre- 
ferred by most authorities. The analysis is per- 
formed as follows: Take four, six, or eight ounces of 



A GUIDE TO URINAEY ANALYSIS. 43 

filtered urine carefully measured ; acid from two to 
four drachms of hydrochloric acid, and set the mix- 
ture in a cool place for 24 hours. When precipita- 
tion is complete, have ready a small filter of Swedish 
paper which has been thoroughly dried in the water- 
oven, and afterward weighed.* The filter is now 
adjusted to the funnel and the urine containing the 
precipitated acid is brought upon it, care being 
taken that no crystals are left clinging to the vessel- 
After the whole of the urine has passed through the 
filter, the precipitate is to be thoroughly washed 
with a wash-bottle, first with dilute hydrochloric 
acid, and afterward with distilled water. When the 
last water has passed through, the filter and con- 
tents are removed to the water-oven and thoroughly 
dried; when dry, it is to be weighed, and the ori- 
ginal weight of the filter deducted. The remainder, 
of course, represents the quantity of Uric acid in the 
volume of urine employed. 



" The filter may be considered dry when two successive weighings 
show no loss of weight. 



44 A GUIDE TO UBLNARY ANALYSIS. 

The following modification of this method is 
found in Neubauer and Vogel.* 

A certain quantity of urine is " measured off by the 
pipette, introduced into a porcelain basin, and eva- 
porated to the consistence of a syrup in a water-bath. 
This residue is treated with small quantities of strong 
spirits of wine of 0.83 specific gravity so long as the 
alcohol takes up any of it. The residue is well 
stirred up with the alcohol, the insoluble matter al- 
lowed to subside, and the spirit more or less turbid 
is passed through a filter previously dried and 
weighed. (The border of the basin is smeared 
with a little grease to prevent the running down of 
any drops.) The extract remaining in the basin is 
again several times treated in the same way with 
the spirit of wine, and dilute hydrochloric acid (1 
part hydrochloric acid and 6 parts water) then 
poured upon it. The residue is now placed upon 
the same filter, washed first of all with dilute hy- 
drochloric acid, and then with water, and dried 



* N. and V. Analysis of the Urine. Sydenham Translation. London, 
1863. P. 218. 



A GUIDE TO URINA11Y ANALYSIS. 45 

and weighed." (This process is omitted in the last 
German edition of Neubauer and Vogel.*) 

Volumetric Estimation of Uric, Acid. — The volu- 
metric method advocated by Suttonf and others 
may be performed as follows: Take a measured 
quantity of urine in a beaker and precipitate the Uric 
acid by means of HC1. After twenty-four hours, 
remove the supernatant fluid by decantation and wash 
the crystals in the beaker with cold distilled water. 
The crystals are then dissolved in a small quantity of 
pure solution of potash and two or three ounces of 
distilled water, strongly acidified with sulphuric acid 
added. The beaker is then brought under the burette 
filled to the mark with the S.S. of permanganate of 
potash, (p. 20.) Upon the addition of a small quantity 
of the permanganate to the fluid in the beaker, its 
color is immediately destroyed. This destruction of 
the color of the permanganate continues upon each 
addition of the S.S. until all of the Uric acid has 
been exhausted. When this occurs, a faint pinkish 

* N. and V. Analyse des Harns. 6te Auflage, 1872. 

f Sutton. Handbook of Volumetric Analysis. London, 1871, p. 219. 



46 A GUIDE TO URINARY . ANALYSIS. 

color appears, not removed by stirring, and indicates 
the termination of the analysis. Every grain of S.S. 
used represents ~ of a grain of Uric acid. 

Referring to this process, Sutton says: "This 
method is not absolutely correct, owing to the fact 
that with the Uric acid there is always precipitated 
a certain amount of coloring matter of the urine, 
which destroys the permanganate equally with the 
Uric acid. The method by weighing is, however, 
open to the same objection, besides being trouble- 
some, so that no advantage is gained by the latter 
plan." 

In connection with each of the three processes 
given above there is a common source of error, which 
should be noted and the necessary correction made. 
The error is due to a very slight solubility of Uric 
acid in acidulated fluid. This solubility amounts to 
about .018 grs. of Uric acid per fluid ounce of acid 
solution ; we must therefore consider how many 
ounces of urine and how many of acidulated fluid 
have been employed, and for each ounce add the 
fraction given. For instance, if we have precipitated 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 47 

the Uric acid from four ounces of urine, washed it 
with twelve ounces of dilute HCL, and found the 
amount of Uric acid to be 1.40 grains, we must add 
to this sixteen times the fraction, (.018 X 16=. 288,) 
which will give us 1.688 grains as the correct 
amount. 

PHOSPHOEIC ACID. 

The quantitative determination of Phosphoric acid 
in urine may be effected by either of the two follow- 
ing processes. The first is that of Liebig, and is 
accomplished by means of a standard solution of 
chloride of iron. It may be performed as follows : 

Measure with the pipette two fluid drachms of 
urine into a small beaker ; add about half a drachm 
of the acid solution of the acetate of soda, (p. 20,) 
and also a little distilled water to increase the 
volume of fluid. Warm the mixture a few minutes 
in the water-bath or over a spirit-lamp, and bring it 
under a burette filled to the mark with the S.S. 
of chloride of iron, (p. 20,) and place a few separate 
drops of a dilute solution of ferrocyanide of potas- 



48 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

sium upon a piece of white glass or in a saucer. 
Add the solution in the burette to the mixture in the 
beaker, in small quantities at a time, and after each ad- 
dition stir well with a glass rod, and bring a drop from 
the beaker in contact with one of the drops of fer- 
rocyanide. If no change of color be produced, continue 
the addition of the S.S. until, upon testing, a blue color 
appears upon contact of a drop from the beaker with a 
drop of the ferrocyanide. This indicates that all the 
Phosphoric acid has been appropriated by the iron, 
and that the latter is in excess, and terminates the 
analysis. The number of grains of S.S. used is now 
ascertained, and this number, divided by 50, will 
give the number of grains of Phosphoric acid per 
fluid ounce of urine. This process is recommended 
by some good authorities, and, for that reason, has 
been given in detail. Thudichum,^ however, says, " If 
the amount of phosphoric acid is small, the above 
method is liable to give rise to an error amounting, 
in the hands of a good operator, to 10 per cent, 
according to Neubauer. This error, according to 

* Op. cit. p. 185. 



A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 49 

Vogel, may amount to 20 or 30 per cent, if a less 
conscientious operator assumes blue spots of diffe- 
rent intensities as the completion of his analyses, or 
if he allows some time to elapse before trying for 
the blue spot." We can only add that this test has 
been to ourselves the source of more uncertainty and 
annoyance than any other connected with volumetric 
analysis of urine, and we have, for some time, given 
it up in favor of the method next to be mentioned.* 
Uranium Process. — This method appears to have 
been devised, about the same time, by three inde- 
pendent experimenters, Sutton, Neubauer, and Pin- 
cus, and depends upon the fact that Phosphoric acid 
forms a very definite and stable compound with the 
oxide of uranium. For preparing the standard solu- 
tions, either the acetate or the nitrate of uranium 
may be employed. The latter, however, is to be 
preferred, because it is more easily obtained pure, 
and its solution is less likely to spoil by keejring 
than that of the acetate. Ferrocyanide of potas- 

*This chloride of iron process is omitted in the last edition of Neu- 
baner and Vogel, although given in some of the earlier editions. 

4 



50 A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 

sium, as in the previous process, serves as an indicator 
of the conclusion of the analysis, striking a distinct 
brown color when in contact with the uranium solu- 
tion. The acetate of soda solution is as requisite in 
this test as in the last. 

Measure, as before, two fluid drachms of urine into 
a 'beaker; add half a drachm of acetate of soda solu- 
tion and a little water, and warm. Have prepared 
a slip of white glass with several separate drops of 
ferrocyanide solution. When the mixture is warm, 
bring it under a burette filled to the mark with 
the S.S. of nitrate of uranium, (p. 20,) and titrate 
with the usual precautions. When a drop from the 
beaker, brought in contact with a drop of the ferro- 
cyanide, strikes a brown color, the analysis is termi- 
nated ; and the number of grains of S.S. used, divided 
by 50, will give the number of grains of Phos- 
phoric acid per fluid ounce of urine. 

(Approximative Analysis. — Marais # has suggested a very 
simple and convenient method of approximative analysis of 
several of the urinary constituents. He introduces a measured 
quantity of urine into a graduated tube, adds the suitable re- 

* Marais's L' Analyse des Urines. Paris. 1873. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



51 



agent, and leaves the tube in a vertical 
position for twenty-four hours for the pre- 
cipitate to subside. At the end of this 
time, he ascertains the volume of the preci- 
pitate, and from it estimates the quantity 
of the substance whose determination is 
sought. He has applied this method to 
the estimation of the earthy phosphates, 
of sulphuric acid, and of chloride of sodium. 
We have extended the application of the 
process, and have had constructed some 
tubes properly graduated to permit of its 
convenient employment. The tubes have 
the form shown in Fig. 14. They are 8j 
inches in length, exclusive of the foot, and 
f of an inch in diameter inside. They are 
graduated in fifths of a cubic centimetre 
from the bottom up to 15 c.c. Above 
these graduations is a line indicating the 
level of one fluid ounce, (456 grs.) It is 
also convenient to have a 25 c.c. line for 
the benefit of those using the metric sys- 
tem, and to facilitate percentage calcula- 
tions. We have had the tube graduated 
in c.c. for sake of convenience, and be- 
cause it is strictly a measure of volume.) 



JU 



Fig. 14. 

loric Acid. — 



Approximative Analysis of Pliospli 
Fill the tube to the ounce-mark with filtered (to 
avoid deposits of mucus, pus, urates, etc.) urine ; add 
two drachms of acetate of soda solution, and after- 
ward, an excess of a solution of nitrate of uranium 



52 A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 

(one to ten ;) mix well, and set aside for twenty-four 
hours. At the end of that time, the number of cubic 
centimetres of precipitate is to be noted. The daily 
variations of phosphate in any particular case can 
thus be easily determined and recorded. We have 
made a number of trials to ascertain the amount of 
Phosphoric acid in each c.c. of precipitate obtained 
in the manner above described, and we have found 
that every .2 c.c. was o .014 gr. of Phosphoric acid.* 
The amount of Phosphoric acid, per fluid ounce, of 
the specimen can then be readily calculated. 

Approximative Analysis of the Earthy Phosphates. 
— Introduce, as before, one ounce of filtered urine into 
the tube, add an excess of strong liq. ammoniw, mix, 
and set aside for twenty-four hours. At the end of 
that time note the amount of precipitate. Marais 
has found that .2 c.c. of precipitate =o= .004 grammes 
(about .06 grains) of Earthy Phosphates. 

* We do not consider these figures entitled to much confidence as yet, 
from the fact that the tubes used were graduated in this country, and 
are not very accurate. Messrs. Tiemann & Co. have, however, recently 
had some made to order in Berlin with correct graduations. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 68 

SULPHURIC ACID. 

The method almost universally adopted for the 
quantitative determination of Sulphuric acid in urine, 
is the one by means of the chloride of barium. It 
may be performed as follows : 

With a pipette introduce two fluid drachms of 
urine into a small beaker, add about half an ounce 
of distilled water and a little hydrochloric acid, and 
place the mixture in the water-bath, or hold it over 
a spirit-lamp until it becomes hot. Fill the burette 
to the mark with the standard solution of chloride 
of barium, (p. 21,) and bring the beaker under it. 
Permit a small portion of the test solution to drop 
into the beaker, and a precipitate of the sulphate of 
baryta will immediately form, and will gradually 
subside. Continue the addition of the S.S. until no 
more precipitate appears to form. Then set aside 
until there appears a stratum of clear fluid above 
the precipitate. When this is found, add a drop 
or two more of the test solution. If this induces a 
fresh precipitate, continue the cautious addition of 
the S.S. as before ; but if no precipitate forms, bring 



54: A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

a drop of the clear fluid in contact with a drop of a 
solution of the sulphate of soda. If now a dense 
white precipitate appears, it shows that the chloride 
has "been added to the urine in too great excess, and 
the analysis must be repeated with more care to- 
ward the end. The number of grains of S.S. finally 
determined upon as necessary for the precipitation of 
all the Sulphuric acid, divided by 50, will give the 
number of grains of Sulphuric acid per fluid ounce of 
the specimen. 

Approximative Analysis of Sulfuric Acid. — In- 
troduce, as before, one ounce of filtered urine into the 
tube, Fig. 12; acidify with HC1. and add an excess 
of a solution of chloride of barium, (1 to 10,) and set 
aside for twenty-four hours. Each .2 c.c. of preci- 
pitate will correspond, according to Marais, to .343 
grammes (about 5.29 grains) of anhydrous Sulphu- 
ric acid. Owing to the small amount of Sulphuric acid 
in the urine and the dense character of the precipi- 
tate of sulphate of baryta, this method will not per- 
mit of its being determined with any accuracy unless 
a much narrower tube and one capable of holding at 



A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 55 

least two or three ounces be employed. The process 
by titration, therefore, is to be decidedly preferred. 

CHLOKIDE OF SODIUM. 

The volumetric estimation of the Chlorides in urine 
is usually effected by the precipitation of the chlo- 
rine in combination with silver, by means of a 
standard solution of nitrate of silver. The method 
of analysis generally employed is that of Mohr, and 
takes advantage of the fact, that the chromate of 
potash, which under ordinary circumstances gives 
with the nitrate of silver a bright-red precipitate of 
chromate of silver, fails to do so in the presence of 
a neutral or slightly alkaline solution of the Chloride 
of sodium. In other words, the nitrate of silver first 
decomposes the Chloride of sodium, and forms a 
chloride of silver, and continues to do so until all of 
the chlorine has been appropriated. When this has 
occurred, the nitrate of silver then acts upon the 
chromate of potash and gives rise to a permanent 
red precipitate. 

The analysis may be performed as follows : 



56 A GUIDE TO UKINAKY ANALYSIS. 

Introduce one fluid drachm of filtered urine into a 
small beaker ; add to it half an ounce or more of dis- 
tilled water, together with two or three drops of a 
saturated solution of chromate of potash. Test the 
reaction of the mixture, and render it neutral or 
faintly alkaline by the addition of carbonate of soda 
or nitric acid, as may be necessary. Bring the 
beaker under the burette filled to the mark with 
the S.S. of nitrate of silver, (p. 21.) The addition of 
a few drops of the test solution to the contents of 
the beaker may be followed by the momentary ap- 
pearance of a red precipitate, which disappears upon 
stirring. Continue the addition of the silver solu- 
tion in small quantities at a time until the last addi- 
tion is followed by a permanent red precipitate color- 
ing the mixture in the beaker. This terminates the 
analysis. Note the number of grains of S.S. used, 
and divide this number by 25, and you will have the 
number of grains of Chloride of Sodium per fluid 
ounce of urine. 

Observation. — The lighter the color of the mix- 
ture in the beaker, the more readily will the first 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 57 

traces of \hs permanent precipitate be detected, and 
the accuracy of the analysis thereby enhanced. It 
is therefore desirable, if possible, to decolorize the 
urine. We cannot, in this analysis, avail ourselves 
of the usual decolorizing agents, acetate of lead or 
animal charcoal, but must employ other means. 
Two have been suggested. First. Measure the 
drachm of urine into a porcelain capsule, and add 
10 grains of pure powdered nitrate of potash.* Eva 
porate the mixture to dryness, and then gradually 
heat the residue over the naked flame until it be- 
comes white. When cool, dissolve the incinerated 
residue in about an ounce of distilled water. The 
reaction of this solution will be distinctly alkaline, 
and it must be nearly neutralized by the cautious 
addition of nitric acid. The chromate of potash is 
then added, and the subsequent steps of the opera- 
tion conducted in the usual manner. 

Second. Pibram f adds to the urine a little per- 

* Tlie nitrate of potash should be tested for chlorides before use, as 
that sold for pure frequently contains an appreciable quantity of chlo- 
rine. 

f Vierteljahrsch. fur pract. Heilkunde. 



58 A GUIDE TO UKINAKY ANALYSIS. 

liianganate of potash in solution, and brings the mix- 
ture nearly to the boiling-point. This gives a 
brownish, flocculent precipitate, which is removed by 
filtration, and the filtrate is then subjected to titra- 
tion in the usual way. 

Approximative Method. — Fill the graduated tube 
to the ounce mark with filtered urine, and strongly 
acidify with nitric acid. Then add an excess of a 
solution of nitrate of silver, (1 to 10,) and set aside 
for twenty-four hours. At the end of this time note 
the volume of precipitate. Marais states that each 
.2 c.c. of precipitate will correspond to .0124 gram- 
mes (about .19 grains) of Chloride of Sodium. The 
urine is strongly acidified in this method, because, 
otherwise, the nitrate of silver would, after decompos- 
ing the chlorides, next attack the phosphates, and 
produce a precipitate of the phosphate of silver, 
which would, of course, lead to erroneous conclu- 
sions. 






CHAPTEE VI. 

DETECTION AND ESTIMATION OF ABNOEMAL CONSTITU- 
ENTS OF UKINE. 

Having finished with those normal ingredients of 
the urine which most frequently concern the physi- 
cian, we turn to a consideration of certain other sub- 
stances formed within the body, but whose appear- 
ance in the urine is to be regarded as an indication 
of disease. The most important of these are albu- 
men, sugar, and certain of the biliary constituents. 

ALBUMEN. 

Various methods have been proposed for the de- 
tection of this substance in urine, but the simplest 
and most reliable is the test by Heat and Nitric ^ acid. 

Ordinary clear and transparent urine, when boiled 
in a test-tube, may, under two different conditions, 
present a turbid appearance. If the urine be alka- 



60 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

line, the turbidity will probably be due to the preci- 
pitation of the earthy phosphates, which are less 
soluble in a warm than in a cold fluid. The addi- 
tion of a little nitric acid will dissolve this precipi- 
tate, and, if no albumen be present, the fluid remains 
clear. On the other hand, if the urine be acid when 
boiled, turbidity will occur, provided albumen be 
present in appreciable quantity. In this case, the 
turbidity is due to the coagulation of the albumen, 
and will not disappear upon the subsequent addition 
of nitric acid, unless the latter be in great excess. 

The presence, however, of a small quantity of 
nitric acid in the mixture, previous to boiling, may 
prevent the customary reaction. Upon this point 
Beale says* "If a few. drops of nitric acid be added 
to a portion of albuminous urine in a test-tube, and 
the mixture subsequently boiled, no precipitate will be 
produced? This peculiar reaction is supposed to be 
due to the decomposition of the phosphates of the 
urine by the nitric acid, the free phosphoric acid 

* Beale. Kidney Diseases and Urinary Deposits. London, 1870. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 61 

serving to keep the albumen in solution, in spite of 
the application of heat. 

A number of other tests for albumen have been 
proposed, as more delicate than the one just given ; 
many of these, however, are unreliable, and one of 
them, at least, is utterly fallacious. We will notice 
'it here, in order to put the reader on his guard against 
employing it, as we know of its having been extern 
sively used in one of the hospitals of this city. 

Fallacy of the so-called Alcohol-test for Albumen. 
— It is stated that if alcohol be added to urine in a 
test-tube containing a trace of albumen not detecti- 
ble by heat or nitric acid, its presence will be evi 
denced by the appearance of a milky line at the 
junction of the alcohol with the urine. Harley,* 
who has observed this reaction, states that the white 
precipitate is albumen, but that it is not indicative 
of Bright's disease, as it can be found in normal 
urine. In other words, that it is a different kind of 
albumen from the one produced by disease of the 
kidneys, and that it is a normal constituent of urine. 

*Harley. Op. cit. p. 288, 



62 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

He further states that it can be most readily obtained 
by the use of absolute alcohol. Desiring to test the 
accuracy of these statements, we made the following, 
among other observations: A test-tube was about 
half-filled with filtered urine, supposed to be healthy, 
and to this was added a drachm or so of absolute 
alcohol. The precipitate immediately formed, but 
was redissolved by agitation. The tube was then 
filled to the top with more of the alcohol, and a 
copious precipitate appeared. It was set aside for 
twenty-four hours, at the end of which time the pre- 
cipitate had subsided to the bottom. A portion of 
the precipitate was now removed with a pipette, and 
examined microscopically. The material under ex- 
amination was found to consist of three different 
substances : first, abundant and large crystals of oxa- 
late of lime ; second, very large prismatic crystals 
resembling and probably consisting of ammonio- 
magnesian phosphate ;* and third, a granular amor- 

*The early appearance of the triple phosphate would be difficult of 
explanation, were it not for the observations of Drs. Tidy and Wood- 
man, (Proceed. Roy. Soc. 1872,) who have shown that ammonia is a 
constant constituent of fresh, healthy urine. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 63 

phous material having no peculiar or distinctive cha- 
racters. (It may be stated that another tulbe filled 
with the same urine, but without the addition of the 
alcohol, presented, after twenty-four hours, no trace of 
crystalline deposit, and none was found on microsco- 
pical examination.) The supernatant fluid was now 
decanted, and the deposit washed several times with 
cold absolute alcohol, without much apparent dimi- 
nution of its bulk. The alcohol was then removed, 
and a little distilled water added. This dissolved 
most of the precipitate. The solution was then 
thrown upon a filter. The addition of an excess of 
alcohol to the filtrate again caused a white precipi- 
tate, which, upon microscopical examination, was 
found to consist entirely of the amorphous material 
already alluded to, no crystalline forms being pre- 
sent. The effect of various reagents was then tried — 
among others, acetic acid, oxalic acid in alcohol, and 
nitric acid. All of these acids dissolved the granu- 
lar matter ; but there appeared, in its stead, a vast 
number of small crystals, whose forms were peculiar 
to the acid employed, and were different from any 



64 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

we had previously encountered in urine. An exami- 
nation of the optical properties of these crystals by 
polarized light leads to the suspicion that the amor- 
phous material is not a simple substance, but a mix- 
ture of two or more. What this substance or these 
substances are, we are as yet unable to say ; but cer- 
tainly some of the reactions noticed could not be 
produced by any form of albumen with which we 
are familiar. 

QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF ALBUMEN. 

It is often of interest, and sometimes of impor- 
tance, to ascertain the amount of albumen in a speci- 
men of urine under examination. This may be de- 
termined, with more or less accuracy, by one of the 
following methods : 

I. Weighing upon a Wet Filter. — Select a suita- 
ble filter, place it in a funnel, and wet it thoroughly 
with water. When the water ceases to drop, remove 
it from the funnel and weigh it, and afterward re- 
place it in the funnel. Next coagulate the albumen 
in a measured volume of urine, by means of acetic 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 65 

acid and heat, and pour it upon the filter. When 
the fluid has all passed through, and the filter ceases 
to drip, remove it from the runnel, and again weigh. 
The increase in weight of course represents the 
amount of wet coagulated albumen in the urine em- 
ployed. This is roughly approximate. 

II. Weighing upon a Dry Filter. — Carefully dry 
a small filter, and, after weighing, place it in a fun- 
nel. Pour upon it the coagulated albumen from a 
known volume of urine, and after the fluid has 
passed through, wash carefully with acidulated, and 
afterward with pure water. Kemove the filter and 
contents to the water-oven, and dry it thoroughly. 
When dry, again weigh ; the increase will represent 
the amount of dried coagulated albumen in the urine 
employed. 

III. With a Graduated Tube. — Coagulate the al- 
bumen in an ounce of urine, and pour the mixture 
into one of the graduated tubes, (Fig. 14,) and set 
aside for twenty-four hours, at the end of which time 
note the amount of precipitate. Daily comparisons 
can in this way be readily effected. 

5 



66 A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 

IV. The Volumetric Method. — This process, de- 
vised by Bodeker, depends upon the fact that ferro- 
cyanide of potassium precipitates albumen from a 
solution containing acetic acid, in the atomic propor- 
tions of 211 ferrocyanide to 1612 albumen. The 
following description of the necessary manipulations 
is slightly modified from that given by Sutton : * 

Mix an ounce of filtered urine with an equal 
volume of ordinary acetic acid. Next take four or 
^.ve small filters of close texture, and adapt them to 
as many funnels ; moisten with a little acetic acid, 
and fill them with boiling water. This will facili- 
tate the subsequent filtrations. Fill a burette with 
the S.S. of ferrocyanide, (p. 21.) Now transfer with 
a pipette a fluid drachm of the acidulated urine into 
a small beaker, and add say 50 grains of S.S. from 
the burette. Shake well, and throw upon the first 
filter. If the filtrate is bright and clear, the ferro- 
cyanide is in excess, and a drop of urine added to it 
will cause a precipitate ; if, on the other hand, there 
is not enough ferrocyanide, the mixture will filter 

* Sutton. Op. cit. p. 223. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 67 

more slowly, and the filtrate will be a little turbid. 
In this case, the addition of either ferrocyanide or 
urine may increase the turbidity. In testing the fil- 
trate for excess of ferrocyanide, care must be taken 
not tt> add too much of the urine, lest the precipitate 
of hydro-ferrocyanide of albumen should dissolve in 
the excess of albumen, 

According to the result obtained from the first 
filter, a second trial is made, with the same amount 
of urine, but increasing or diminishing the ferro- 
cyanide, as may be necessary, and so on, until the 
conditions first observed are reversed. A trial of 
the mean between this quantity and the previous 
one will bring the estimation closer, so that a final 
test may be conclusive. 



Example : 

Acidulated Urine, S.S, 



In Filtrate. 



Urine gave S.S. gave 

1st 3i. 50 Prec. 

2d 3i. 30 Prec. 

3d 3i. 20 Prec. 

4th 3i. 25 

Hence, one drachm of acidulated urine =o a half- 
drachm of pure urine — contained .25 gr. of albumen, 
or four grains to the ounce. 



68 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

SUGAR. 

Next to albumen, the most important abnormal 
ingredient of urine is sugar. Its presence may be 
detected by several methods, the favorites being 
Tromraer's, Fehling's, and the Fermentation-test. 

Trommels test may be performed as follows : Pour 
a small quantity of the suspected urine into a test- 
tube ; add a drop or two of a solution of sulphate of 
copper, and to this about half as much liq. potassse 
as there is urine. Upon shaking, the mixture be- 
comes of a homogeneous dark-blue color. The mix- 
ture is then raised to the boiling-point, and, if sugar 
is present, a pale yellowish-brown precipitate of the 
suboxide of copper appears. If albumen is present, 
the above reaction will not take place ; hence, this 
fact must be ascertained in advance, and the albu- 
men, if present, be separated by coagulation and 
nitration. 

Fehling's test, preferred by many, may be per- 
formed as follows: Introduce into a test-tube one 
volume of the copper and two volumes of the soda 
solutions, (p. 21.) Shake well, raise the mixture to 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 69 

the boiling-point, and add the suspected urine in 
small quantities at a time. In ordinary diabetic 
urine the first few drops will produce a brilliant red- 
dish or yellowish opaque precipitate. If the urine 
be added to about the volume of the test-liquid, and 
the mixture be again brought to the boiling-point 
without any precipitate, it is certain that no sugar is 
present. 

Fermentation-test- — Put a little good yeast into a 
test-tube, and then fill it with the suspected urine. 
Close the mouth of the tube with the finger, and 
invert it into a vessel containing a considerable 
quantity of the same urine ; remove the finger, with- 
out permitting air to enter the tube, and support it 
in a vertical position by means of a small wire tri- 
angle. Set the apparatus in a warm place for 
t wenty-four hours. If sugar be present, it will be de- 
composed by fermentation into alcohol and carbonic 
acid, the gas rising to the top of the tube and dis- 
placing the fluid. This test is reliable, provided the 
yeast is good and the temperature suitable. These 



70 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

points can Ibe ascertained by preparing a companion 
tube containing a solution of grape-sugar, together 
with a little yeast, and setting it beside the tube 
containing the urine. If gas rises in both tubes, 
there is sugar in the urine; if no gas rises in the 
urine-tube, but does in the other, there is no sugar 
in the urine ; while, if no gas rises in either tube, 
the yeast or the temperature are at fault, and the 
experiment must be repeated under more favora- 
ble circumstances. 

Quantitative Determination of Sugar. — In order 
to conveniently estimate the quantity of sugar in a 
specimen of diabetic urine, several methods have 
been proposed, none of which possess absolute 
accuracy; but the results are sufficiently near the 
truth to permit of their employment for clinical pur- 
poses. 

Feliling's Method. — The formula for the S.S. to be 
used in this test has already been given, (p. 21.) 
Two hundred fluid grains of this solution are intro- 
duced into a flash, and diluted with two or three 



A GUIDE TO UKINARY ANALYSIS. 



71 




Fig. 15. 



volumes of distilled water. The 
flask is then supported above a 
spirit-lamp or Bun sen burner, 
(Fig. 15,) and heated. It is 
well to let the flask rest upon a 
piece of wire-gauze, as the heat 
is' thereby more evenly distri- 
buted. A certain quantity of 
urine is now taken, and is di- 
luted either with four or with 
nine volumes of distilled water, according as it is 
supposed to contain much or little sugar. This di- 
luted urine is then transferred to a burette. When 
the copper solution has reached the boiling-point, the 
flask is brought under the burette, and a small por- 
tion of the dilute urine is delivered into it. If, 
upon again heating, the blue color be not discharged, 
make fresh additions of urine, and continue the pro- 
cess, adding small portions at a time, until the last 
trace of blue disappears. When this occurs, ex- 
amine the burette and calculate the result. 



72 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

Example : 

A specimen of urine was diluted with four 
volumes of water, and 175 grs. of the mixture were 
found necessary to reduce the 200 grs. of S.S. 
Hence, 175 grs. dilute urine =35 grs. pure urine, 
contained one gr. of sugar. The proportion per 
fluid ounce is readily obtained : 35 : 1 : : 456 : 13 grs. 
per fluid ounce. 

Hoberts's, or the Specific Gravity Method. — Dr. 
Win. Roberts has proposed the following process : 

1st. Four ounces of saccharine urine are placed in 
a twelve-ounce vial with some yeast, and the mouth 
of the vial closed with a nicked cork, to permit the 
escape of gas. 

2d. A companion-vial containing some of the same 
urine, without the yeast, and tightly corked, is 
placed beside the other, in a warm place. After fer- 
mentation has ceased, the specific gravity of the two 
specimens is ascertained with the urinometer. Dr. 
Roberts states that each degree of specific gravity 
lost by the fermented specimen indicates one grain 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 73 

of sugar per fluid ounce of urine, and considers the 
method sufficiently accurate for clinical purposes.* 

The method by circumpolarization, although one 
of the most accurate and convenient processes known, 
will not be described, as the cost of the necessary 
instrument precludes its coming into ordinary clini- 
cal use, and the instrument, when sold, is usually 
accompanied with full directions for its employment. 

BILE. 

The presence of bile in urine may sometimes be 
ascertained by the very simple process of shaking 
the urine in a partially-filled bottle, and regarding 
the froth or bead upon the surface. If the bead is 
yellow, it is due to the presence of bile, as the bead 
of normal urine is white, however yellow the urine 
itself may be. This method, however, will not 
answer if the bile be present in very small quan- 
tity, and it will be necessary to employ some more 
delicate procedure. We copy the following from 
Flint: f 

*It must be remembered that the fluid ounce, Imperial measure, 
weighs about 18 grs. less than the fluid ounce U. S. 
f Flint. Op. cit. p. 39. 



74 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

" The presence of the coloring matter of the bile is 
usually indicated by the characteristic tint, more or 
less strongly marked, in the urine. A simple and 
certain test is to spread a thin stratum of the urine 
upon a porcelain surface, and to add to it a drop of 
nitroso-nitric acid, (a mixture of nitrous with nitric 
acid.) If biliverdine be present, the drop of acid 
will be fringed with a rapidly- varying play of colors, 
(violet, green, and red,) which speedily disajDpear. 
A drop of nitric acid will produce nearly the same 
appearance, though the colors are less strongly 
marked." 

The presence of the biliary acids may sometimes 
be detected in urine by Pettenkofer's test, which 
consists in adding to a little urine in a test-tube a 
drop or two- of a strong solution of grape-sugar, (one 
to four.) Pure concentrated sulphuric acid is then 
to be added, drop by drop ; if this is followed by 
the production of a red color, changing, after some 
minutes, to purple, the presence of the biliary ingre- 
dients may be assumed. It must be remembered, 
however, that albumen in urine will, under some cir- 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 75 

cunistances, give the same result, as also, according 
to Thudichum,* will cerebric and lithofellic acids. 

Neubauerf modifies the details for the performance 
of Pettenkofer's test in the following manner : Eva- 
porate to dryness a few drops of the suspected urine 
in a small porcelain capsule, over the water-bath; 
add a small drop of sugar-solution, (1 to 500,) and 
to this a similar drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Warm the mixture for a few minutes upon the water- 
bath, and if the biliary acids be present, a reddish- 
violet hue will appear ; the moment this tint is ob- 
served, remove the capsule from the water-bath and 
allow it to cool. While cooling, the reaction will 
increase in intensity. Neubauer states that this 
method is capable of detecting extremely minute 
quantities of the biliary ingredients. 

Strasbourg^ offers the following modification : A 
little cane-sugar is dissolved in a small quantity of 
the suspected urine, and a strip of bibulous paper is 

* Thudichum. Chemical Physiology, p. 19. 

f Neubauer and Vogel. Op. cit. Sixth edition. P. 88. 

X Pfliiger's Archiv. IV. 1871. 



76 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

immersed in the mixture, and afterward removed 
and dried. When dry, a drop of pure concentrated 
sulphuric acid is placed upon the paper, and, if the 
biliary acids be present, a bright violet color is per- 
ceived by transmitted light. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DETECTION OF MEDICINAL AND OTHER SUBSTANCES EN 
THE URINE. 

A very large number of medicinal substances are 
excreted in part or wholly by the kidneys, and are 
detectable in then secretion. Concerning the majo- 
rity of these, it may be said that then detection is 
rarely of clinical importance, and many of the neces- 
sary procedures are difficult and tedious. A few, 
however, of the more simple will be given. 

IRON. 

Detection of Iron by the Wet Way. — The descrip- 
tion of the following process is taken from Marais :* 

Take from two to four drachms of urine, and eva- 
porate to dryness. Then gradually heat to redness, 
until the contents of the capsule are completely 

* Marais. Op. cit. p. 139, 



78 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

blackened ; remove from the flame and cool. When 
cold, gather the carbonaceous mass to the centre of 
the capsule with a small wooden or platinum spa- 
tula,* and add perfectly pure hydrochloric acid. 
Triturate the acid thoroughly with the carbon, and 
let the mixture stand for ten minutes. Then add 
half as much distilled water as there is acid, and 
boil for a few moments, triturating as before. When 
cold, filter, and diyide the filtrate into two portions. 

1st. To one portion of the filtrate add carbonate 
of soda to neutralization, and then add, drop by 
drop, a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, (one 
to ten.) If the liquid turn blue, we may know 
that a ferrocyanide of Iron has formed. 

2d. To the other portion, add one or two drops of 
nitric acid, and boil. When cold, add drop by 
drop a solution of sulphocyanide of potassium, (one 
to ten.) If iron be present, a bright reddish-brown 



* Messrs. Tiemann & Co. have, at our suggestion, made some spatu- 
lse of irido-platinum, which, on account of their stiffness, are prefera- 
ble to those of pure platinum, and are admirably adapted to various 
chemical and microscopical manipulations. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 79 

precipitate of sulphocyanide of Iron will immedi- 
ately appear. 

Marais lays stress upon the importance of testing 
the hydrochloric acid before use, as much that is 
sold for pure contains notable traces of iron. 

In performing the above tests, we have much 
more frequently obtained a positive result with the 
sulpJw-cj saiide than with the /m'ocyanide, which 
may be due to the acknowledged greater delicacy of 
the former test, or else to some error of manipula- 
tion in the performance of the latter. 

Detection of Iron by the Blowpipe. — This method, 
however, is the one we usually employ, and may be 
performed as follows : Evaporate half an ounce of 
urine to dryness, and incinerate the residue. Take 
a piece of fine platinum wire, and make a small loop 
at its end. Make the loop red-hot in the flame of 
a blowpipe, and dip it hot into powdered borax. 
Sufficient borax will adhere to the wire, and, upon 
again heating, will fuse into a transparent, colorless 
bead. If the bead be again heated, and brought in 
contact with the urine-ash, a portion of the latter 



80 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

will adhere. This is again heated, and the operation 
repeated until a considerable portion of the ash has 
been taken up by the bead. Now, if iron be pre- 
sent, the bead when wa?vn will be yellow and trans- 
parent, and when cold, colorless.* If iron is present 
in large quantity, the borax bead is red when warm, 
and yellow when cold ; we have not, however, met 
with this in urine. Although this reaction before 
the blowpipe is not peculiar to iron, it will not be 
counterfeited by any substance likely to be met with 
in urine. 

Harleyf states that urohgematin contains iron in 
appreciable quantities, and that, in the ashes of this 
substance, it may be detected without difficulty, 
which fact, among others, leads him to suppose that 
urohsematin is derived from the coloring matter of 
the blood, and its occurrence in urine in undue pro- 
portion to be the result and the evidence of exces- 
sive destruction of red blood-corpuscles. This, 



* Sometimes it is white and opaque, from the presence of certain urin- 
ary salts. 
f Harley. Op. cit. pp. 101 and 102. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 81 

however, does not invalidate the tests given, as they 
are not sufficiently delicate to detect the minute 
quantity of iron present in normal urine; and its 
detection, by means of them, would seem to indicate 
that the iron came from without ; or, possibly, that 
the red corpuscles were being destroyed with unac- 
customed rapidity. 

LEAD. 

Vogel * states that the search for lead in urine is 
difficult and not always successful. Ollivier, how- 
ever, gives the following process : 

The urine suspected to contain traces of a soluble 
compound of lead is treated with nitric acid, 
evaporated to dryness, and burned to an ash. The 
ash is mixed with distilled water, left to repose 
for several hours, and then thrown upon a double 
filter. A few drops of hydrosulphide of ammonium 
are added to the filtrate, and the precipitate is col- 
lected, washed, and dried. This precipitate is treated 
with nitric acid and heated. The solution is then 

* Neubauer and Vogel. Op. cit. Sixth edition. P. 282. 
6 



82 A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 

diluted with distilled water and again filtered. The 
filtrate is concentrated on the water-bath, and, when 
cold, a little iodide of potassium in solution is added. 
A yellow precipitate of iodide of lead indicates the 
presence, in the urine, of this latter substance. 

MEECUEY. 

Byasson* gives the following simple method of de- 
tecting this substance in urine. The process is as 
follows: Wrap a piece of gold-foil round a small 
piece of tin, and introduce it into a beaker containing 
the suspected urine, previously acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid. At the end of twenty-four hours, 
remove the gold, wash it carefully with distilled 
water, and dry it with bibulous paper. It should 
then be introduced into a small copper tube, the 
mouth of which is loosely stopped with cotton, below 
which is fastened a piece of test-paper. 

The test-paper is made by preparing a solution of 
the following constitution: Water, 100 parts; chlo- 
ride of gold sodium, 0.6 of a part ; bichloride of pla- 

* Jour, de l'Anatomie et de la Physiologie, (Robin.) 1872. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 83 

tinum, 0.4 of a part. A quill-pen dipped in this 
solution is used to trace upon white paper a few 
lines or marks. The test-paper being in position, 
the copper tube is then brought over the flame of an 
alcohol lamp. The heat will volatilize any mercury 
present, which, coming in contact with the paper, 
reduces the test-fluid, causing purplish or black 
marks to appear upon the paper where the tracings 
have been made. 



APPENDIX. 

TABLE I. 

Table showing the approximate composition of an average specimen 
of normal urine. 

Urea 8.00 grains per fluid ounce. 

Uric Acid 0.25 " 

Phosphoric Acid ...1.50 " " " " 

Sulphuric Acid 1.00 " 

Chloride of Sodium 2.50 " 



TABLE II. 

Table for Conversion of the Fahrenheit Thermometer Scale into that of 
the Centigrade, and vice versa. 



F. 


c. 


F. 


c. 


F. 


c. 


32 


0.00 


55 


12.78 


78 


25.55 


33 


0.55 


56 


13.33 


79 


26.11 


34 


1.11 


57 


13.89 


80 


26.67 


35 


1.67 


58 


14.44 


81 


27.22 


36 


2.22 


59 


15.00 


82 


27.78 


37 


2.78 


60 


15.55 


83 


28.33 


38 


3.33 


61 


16.11 


84 


28.89 


39 


3.89 


62 


16.67 


85 


29.44 


40 


4.44 


63 


17.22 


86 


30.00 


41 


5.00 


64 


17.78 


87 


30.55 


42 


5.55 


65 


18.33 


88 


31.11 


43 


6.11 


66 


18.89 


89 


31.67 


44 


6.67 


67 


19.44 


90 


32.22 


45 


7.22 


68 


20.00 


91 


32.78 


46 


7.78 


69 


20.55 


92 


33.33 


47 


8.33 


70 


21.11 


93 


33.89 


48 


8.89 


71 


21.67 


94 


34.44 


49 


9.44 


72 


22.22 


95 


35.00 


50 


10.00 


73 


22.78 


96 


35.55 


51 


10.55 


74 


23.33 


97 


36.11 


52 


11.11 


75 


23.89 


98 


36.67 


53 


11.67 


76 


24.44 


99 


37.22 


54 


12.22 


77 


25.00 


100 


37.78 



S6 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



TABLE III. 

Table for the Conversion of the Millimetre Barometer Scale into that of 
English Inches. 



MM. 


Inch. 


MM. 


Inch. 


MM. 


Inch. 


700 


27.560 


730 


28.741 


760 


29.922 


701 


27.590 


731 


28.780 


761 


29.961 


702 


27.638 


732 


28.819 


762 


30.000 


703 


27.678 


733 


28.859 


763 


30.040 


704 


27.717 


734 


28.898 


764 


30.079 


705 


27.756 


735 


28.938 


765 


30.119 


706 


27.795 


736 


28.977 


766 


30.158 


707 


27.835 


737 


29.016 


767 


30.197 


708 


27.876 


738 


29.056 


768 


30.237 


709 


27.914 


739 


29.095 


769 


30.276 


710 


27.953 


740 


29.134 


770 


30.315 


711 


27.992 


741 


29.174 


771 


30.355 


712 


28.032 


742 


29.213 


772 


30.384 


713 


28.071 


743 


29.252 


! . 773 


30.434 


714 


28.111 


744 


29.292 


774 


30.473 


715 


28.150 


745 


29.331 


775 


30.512 


716 


28.189 


746 


29.371 


776 


30.552 


717 


28.229 


747 


29.410 


I 777 


30.591 


718 ' 


28.268 


748 


29.449 


778 


30.631 


719 


28.308 


749 


29.489 


779 


30.670 


720 


28.347 


750 


29.528 


780 


30.709 


721 


28.386 


751 


29.567 


781 


30.749 


722 


28.426 


752 


29.607 


782 


30.788 


723 


28.465 


753 


29.646 


783 


30.827 


724 


28.504 


754 


29.685 


784 


30.867 


725 


28.543 


755 


29.725 


785 


30.906 


726 


28.583 


756 


29.764 


786 


30.945 


727 


28.622 


757 


29.804 


787 


30.983 


728 


28.661 


758 


29.843 


788 


31.024 


729 


28.701 


759 


29.882 


789 


31.063 



1 millimetre^. 03937 inch. 
1 inch =25. 39954 mm. 



RECENT BIBLIOGKAPHY OF URINARY 
ANALYSIS. 



AMERICAN. 

Flint. — Cliemical Examination of the Urine. Tliird edition. Xew- 
York. 1872. 

ENGLISH. 

Beale. — Kidney Diseases and Urinary Deposits. Third edition. 
London. 1872. 

Legg. — A Guide to the Examination of the Urine. Third edition. 
London. 1872. 

Harley. — The Urine and its Derangements. London. 1872. 

FRENCH. 

Xisseron. — L'Urine. Paris. 1869. 

Boymond. — De l'Uree. Paris. 1872. 

Marais. — L' Analyse des Urines. Paris. 1873. 

GERMAN. 

Ultzmann u. Hofmann. — Untersuchung des Harns. Wien. 1871. 
Puhlmann. — Untersuchung des Harns. 2te Auf. Berlin. 1871. 
Ziegler. — Uroscopie ani Krankenbette. 3te Auf . Erlangen. 1871. 
Neubauer u. Yogel. — Analyse des Harns. 6te Auf. Wiesbaden. 
1872. 



A GUIDE TO URINARY ANALYSIS. 



Messrs. G. Tiemann & Co., 67 Chatham street, and Stohlmann, Pfarre 
& Co. , 107 East Twenty-eighth street, will furnish any of the following 
articles at the annexed prices. 

12 Test-tubes and Stand $2 00 

Spirit-lamp 75 

Bunsen Burner 1 50 

" Improved 2 00 

Funnels 25 to 50 

Burette, Mohr's 200 grains 2 00 

" " 200 " glass stop-cock 3 00 

Bink's 250 " 187 

Stand 150 

Brushes for cleaning test-tubes, each, 15 cents ; per dozen 1 50 

2-oz. Beakers, each 10 

Griffin's Beakers, with lip, nest of six 2 00 

Water-bath 2 60 

Water-oven attachment 1 50 

Retort-stand 1 50 

Rapid Filtering Apparatus 5 00 

Measuring Flask, holding 3000 grains ... 1 50 

Flasks, each 15 to 25 

Urinometer 1 00 

Specific Gravity Bottle, 1000 grains 2 00 

Graduates — 2-ounce, 50 cents ; 6-ounce 75 

Graduated Tubes for Approximative Analysis 1 50 

Urea Tube , 2 00 

Filters, German and Swedish, assortment 75 

Litmus Paper, blue and red 25 

Measuring Pipettes, f 3 ss, f 3 i, f 3 ij 50 

Balance, (Becker's,) turning with -^ grain 11 00 

' ' same as above, but in a glass case 22 00 

Weights, (accurate,) 10 grains to 5 L - grain 1 75 

best quality, 1000 grains to T ^o grain 10 00 

Fehling's Solution, (Piffard's formula,) in separate bottles, per six 

fluid ounces, including bottles 1 50 



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